16

■Bio-mathematics, Statistics and Nano-Technologies: Mosquito Control Strategies

economically justified and consequently minimize the risks to human and environmental

health (ESA 2020). The principles for the screening and selection of control methods in-

volves comparing the effectiveness, safety, economics, and simplicity across all available

pest control techniques and the subsequent integration of appropriate measures (EPA 2020,

WHO 2008). IPM combinations of varying methods and tools are designed to control either

a prioritized major species or a multiple species of pests and/or vectors. The first choices

for IPM are source reduction and environmental control methods that may be the perma-

nent solution. Importantly, these methods have to be adapted to the local climate, economy,

and community in addition to being practical, acceptable, and sustainable. In the United

States, IPM was formulated into national policy in 1972 when President Richard Nixon

directed federal agencies to take steps to advance the application of IPM in all relevant

sectors. In 1979, President Jimmy Carter established an interagency IPM Coordinating

Committee to ensure the development and implementation of IPM practices (ESA 2020).

The IPM strategy was later extended towards integrated mosquito management (IMM) and

integrated vector management (IVM).

2.4

INTEGRATED MOSQUITO MANAGEMENT (IMM)

IMM is a control strategy that manages mosquito populations based on risk thresholds,

ecological characteristics of mosquitos and ecosystems, economic and environmental con-

ditions, community participation, and an overall method selection process (FMCA 2012,

CDC 2020a). The traditional IMM methods involve the use of standard traps to first con-

duct surveillance of mosquito population and consequently define an appropriate action

threshold for justifying control methods, insecticide application, and equipment for con-

trol action (AMCA 2017) (Figure 2.1). Based on the multitude of known breeding habitats

of pest and vector species, the emphasis of mosquito control is divided into the sectors of

container-breeder mosquito management, waste water or storm drain mosquito manage-

ment, floodwater mosquito management, salt marsh mosquito management, and rice field

mosquito management (Lu 1986). There is additional emphasis for control practices based

on the exact diseases trasmitted by vector mosquitos, specifically divided into dengue,

Yellow fever, Chickgunnya, and Zika vector mosquito management sectors. Notably, the

principles of container-breeder mosquito management match the practices for managing

vector species of Zika and other arboviruses (SLE, WNV, EEE/WEE, Japanese encephali-

tis), as well as malaria vectors, lymphic filiarisis vectors, and urban mosquito species (Lu

1999).

Typical control methods involve simple mechanical and physical controls such as hand-

picking, barriers, traps, vacuuming, and tillage disrupt breeding (Lloyd et al. 2018). Ad-

ditionally, source reduction is performed through environmental management and modi-

fications, which are considered permanent solutions that limit and reduce breeding sites

and/or limit and reduce the opportunities for mosquitos to come into contact with humans

or other animals. Chemical control is also implemented through use of registered insecti-

cides in aerial applications or ground application techniques like indoor residual spraying

(IRS), long last insecticide-treated bed nets, ULV spraying (WHO 2006, WHO 2006a),

and barrier spraying (Najera & Zaim 2002). Biocontrol or biorational control measures are

also common in IMM and involve the use of pathogens, parasites, predators, sterile insect